8.1. Operators
assignment
- variable assignment
- Initializing or changing the value of a variable
- =
- All-purpose assignment operator, which works for both arithmetic and string assignments.
var=27 category=minerals # No spaces allowed after the "=".
Do not confuse the "=" assignment
operator with the = test
operator.
# = as a test operator if [ "$string1" = "$string2" ] then command fi # if [ "X$string1" = "X$string2" ] is safer, #+ to prevent an error message should one of the variables be empty. # (The prepended "X" characters cancel out.)
arithmetic operators
- +
- plus
- -
- minus
- *
- multiplication
- /
- division
- **
- exponentiation
# Bash, version 2.02, introduced the "**" exponentiation operator. let "z=5**3" # 5 * 5 * 5 echo "z = $z" # z = 125
- %
- modulo, or mod (returns the remainder of an integer division operation)
bash$ expr 5 % 3 2
Example 8-1. Greatest common divisor#!/bin/bash # gcd.sh: greatest common divisor # Uses Euclid's algorithm # The "greatest common divisor" (gcd) of two integers #+ is the largest integer that will divide both, leaving no remainder. # Euclid's algorithm uses successive division. # In each pass, #+ dividend <--- divisor #+ divisor <--- remainder #+ until remainder = 0. # The gcd = dividend, on the final pass. # # For an excellent discussion of Euclid's algorithm, see #+ Jim Loy's site, http://www.jimloy.com/number/euclids.htm. # ------------------------------------------------------ # Argument check ARGS=2 E_BADARGS=85 if [ $# -ne "$ARGS" ] then echo "Usage: `basename $0` first-number second-number" exit $E_BADARGS fi # ------------------------------------------------------ gcd () { dividend=$1 # Arbitrary assignment. divisor=$2 #! It doesn't matter which of the two is larger. # Why not? remainder=1 # If an uninitialized variable is used inside #+ test brackets, an error message results. until [ "$remainder" -eq 0 ] do # ^^^^^^^^^^ Must be previously initialized! let "remainder = $dividend % $divisor" dividend=$divisor # Now repeat with 2 smallest numbers. divisor=$remainder done # Euclid's algorithm } # Last $dividend is the gcd. gcd $1 $2 echo; echo "GCD of $1 and $2 = $dividend"; echo # Exercises : # --------- # 1) Check command-line arguments to make sure they are integers, #+ and exit the script with an appropriate error message if not. # 2) Rewrite the gcd () function to use local variables. exit 0
- +=
- plus-equal (increment variable by a constant) let "var += 5" results in var being incremented by 5.
- -=
- minus-equal (decrement variable by a constant)
- *=
- times-equal (multiply variable by a constant) let "var *= 4" results in var being multiplied by 4.
- /=
- slash-equal (divide variable by a constant)
- %=
- mod-equal (remainder of dividing variable by a constant) Arithmetic operators often occur in an expr or let expression.
Example 8-2. Using Arithmetic Operations
#!/bin/bash # Counting to 11 in 10 different ways. n=1; echo -n "$n " let "n = $n + 1" # let "n = n + 1" also works. echo -n "$n " : $((n = $n + 1)) # ":" necessary because otherwise Bash attempts #+ to interpret "$((n = $n + 1))" as a command. echo -n "$n " (( n = n + 1 )) # A simpler alternative to the method above. # Thanks, David Lombard, for pointing this out. echo -n "$n " n=$(($n + 1)) echo -n "$n " : $[ n = $n + 1 ] # ":" necessary because otherwise Bash attempts #+ to interpret "$[ n = $n + 1 ]" as a command. # Works even if "n" was initialized as a string. echo -n "$n " n=$[ $n + 1 ] # Works even if "n" was initialized as a string. #* Avoid this type of construct, since it is obsolete and nonportable. # Thanks, Stephane Chazelas. echo -n "$n " # Now for C-style increment operators. # Thanks, Frank Wang, for pointing this out. let "n++" # let "++n" also works. echo -n "$n " (( n++ )) # (( ++n )) also works. echo -n "$n " : $(( n++ )) # : $(( ++n )) also works. echo -n "$n " : $[ n++ ] # : $[ ++n ] also works echo -n "$n " echo exit 0
![]() | Integer variables in older versions of Bash were signed long (32-bit) integers, in the range of -2147483648 to 2147483647. An operation that took a variable outside these limits gave an erroneous result.
|
![]() | Bash does not understand floating point arithmetic. It treats numbers containing a decimal point as strings.
point calculations or math library functions. |
bitwise operators. The bitwise operators seldom make an appearance in shell scripts.
Their chief use seems to be manipulating and testing values read
from ports or sockets. "Bit
flipping" is more relevant to compiled languages, such
as C and C++, which provide direct access to system
hardware.
Their chief use seems to be manipulating and testing values read
from ports or sockets. "Bit
flipping" is more relevant to compiled languages, such
as C and C++, which provide direct access to system
hardware.
bitwise operators
- <<
- bitwise left shift (multiplies by 2 for each shift position)
- <<=
- left-shift-equal let "var <<= 2" results in var left-shifted 2 bits (multiplied by 4)
- >>
- bitwise right shift (divides by 2 for each shift position)
- >>=
- right-shift-equal (inverse of <<=)
- &
- bitwise AND
- &=
- bitwise AND-equal
- |
- bitwise OR
- |=
- bitwise OR-equal
- ~
- bitwise NOT
- ^
- bitwise XOR
- ^=
- bitwise XOR-equal
logical (boolean) operators
- !
- NOT
if [ ! -f $FILENAME ] then ...
- &&
- AND
if [ $condition1 ] && [ $condition2 ] # Same as: if [ $condition1 -a $condition2 ] # Returns true if both condition1 and condition2 hold true... if [[ $condition1 && $condition2 ]] # Also works. # Note that && operator not permitted inside brackets #+ of [ ... ] construct.
&& may also be used, depending on context,
in an and list
to concatenate commands. - ||
- OR
if [ $condition1 ] || [ $condition2 ] # Same as: if [ $condition1 -o $condition2 ] # Returns true if either condition1 or condition2 holds true... if [[ $condition1 || $condition2 ]] # Also works. # Note that || operator not permitted inside brackets #+ of a [ ... ] construct.
Bash tests the exit
status of each statement linked with a logical
operator.Example 8-3. Compound Condition Tests Using && and ||The && and || operators also find use in an arithmetic context.#!/bin/bash a=24 b=47 if [ "$a" -eq 24 ] && [ "$b" -eq 47 ] then echo "Test #1 succeeds." else echo "Test #1 fails." fi # ERROR: if [ "$a" -eq 24 && "$b" -eq 47 ] #+ attempts to execute ' [ "$a" -eq 24 ' #+ and fails to finding matching ']'. # # Note: if [[ $a -eq 24 && $b -eq 24 ]] works. # The double-bracket if-test is more flexible #+ than the single-bracket version. # (The "&&" has a different meaning in line 17 than in line 6.) # Thanks, Stephane Chazelas, for pointing this out. if [ "$a" -eq 98 ] || [ "$b" -eq 47 ] then echo "Test #2 succeeds." else echo "Test #2 fails." fi # The -a and -o options provide #+ an alternative compound condition test. # Thanks to Patrick Callahan for pointing this out. if [ "$a" -eq 24 -a "$b" -eq 47 ] then echo "Test #3 succeeds." else echo "Test #3 fails." fi if [ "$a" -eq 98 -o "$b" -eq 47 ] then echo "Test #4 succeeds." else echo "Test #4 fails." fi a=rhino b=crocodile if [ "$a" = rhino ] && [ "$b" = crocodile ] then echo "Test #5 succeeds." else echo "Test #5 fails." fi exit 0
bash$ echo $(( 1 && 2 )) $((3 && 0)) $((4 || 0)) $((0 || 0)) 1 0 1 0
miscellaneous operators
- ,
- Comma operator The comma operator chains together two or more arithmetic operations. All the operations are evaluated (with possible side effects. [1]
let "t1 = ((5 + 3, 7 - 1, 15 - 4))" echo "t1 = $t1" ^^^^^^ # t1 = 11 # Here t1 is set to the result of the last operation. Why? let "t2 = ((a = 9, 15 / 3))" # Set "a" and calculate "t2". echo "t2 = $t2 a = $a" # t2 = 5 a = 9
Notes
[1] | Side effects are, of course, unintended -- and usually undesirable -- consequences. |
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